PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE

LESSON 2

PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE

The history of  India dated back to Pre Historic times. There are no written evidence available to describe the Pre-Historic Period of  India. However there are much Archaeological Remains have found in different parts of  India.

They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in this period.

In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the –

1.   Paleolithic(Old Stone Age) Before 10000 B.C.

    2.Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age),

    3.Neolithic (NewStone Age) and the Metal Age

Ø The technique of radio-carbon dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another dating method is known as dendro-chronology.

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age

Ø The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic people are scattered across the subcontinent.

Ø They also lived rarely in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age in India are:

a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.

b. The Siwalik hills on the north India.

c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh. (few Old Stone Age paintings have also been found on rocks)

d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.

e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh

f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.

Ø In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals. Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite.

Ø Large pebbles are often found in river terraces.

Ø The hunting of large animals would have required the combined effort of a group of people with large stone axes.

Ø We have little knowledge about their language and communication. Their way of life became modified with the passage of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude pots and grow some plants.

Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age –( from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C.)

Ø After the Palaeolithic age the next stage of human was Mesolithic age .

Ø It was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age. Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Ø The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people.

Ø In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths.

Ø The hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period.

Ø However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing.

Ø The use of bow and arrow also began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area.

Ø Therefore, domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation started.

Ø Animal bones are found in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich.

Ø Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been practiced.

Neolithic Age (6000 B.C to 4000 B.C.)

Ø A remarkable progress is noticed in human civilization in the Neolithic Age.

Ø Neolithic remains are found in various parts of India. These include the Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan.

Ø The important Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.

Ø The chief characteristic features practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of stone tools and the manufacture of pottery.

Ø In fact, the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life.

Ø There was a great improvement in technology of making tools and other equipments used by man. Stone tools were now polished.

Ø The polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting and cutting trees. Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.

Ø Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking as well as storage of food grains.

Ø Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead. There was also improvement in agriculture.

Ø Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas at different points of time.

Ø Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India.

Ø Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent.

Ø Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport. The people of Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.

Metal Age

Ø The Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone) period when copper and bronze came to be used.

Ø The new technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an important development in human civilization.

Ø But the use of stone tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to be essential items.

Ø People began to travel for a long distance to obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India.

Ø Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. Most importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of Chalcolithic culture.

Ø The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone.

Ø The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found in South India.

Ø Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu.

For towns of IndusValley Civilisation click here.

Origin and Evolution

Ø The archaeological findings excavated for the last eight decades reveal the gradual development of the Harappan culture.

Ø There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and late Harappan.

Ø The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan.

Ø The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture.

Ø In this  stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life.

Ø In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains. There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during this period. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage.

Ø In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged.

Ø The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban features prove this phase of evolution.

Ø In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture started.

Ø The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution.

Ø Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a massive brick wall as flood protection.

Ø Lothal remained an emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and the remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia.

Ø In 1931, Sir John Marshall estimated the duration of the occupation of Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C.

Ø Town Planning-

Ø The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into several rectangular blocks.

Ø Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common people.

Ø The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture.

Ø Another remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.

Economic life

Ø There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton.

Ø Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established. A number of other animals were hunted for food including deer.

Ø Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers.

Ø Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding examples of the Harappan metal craft.

Ø Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places. Pottery remains plain and in some places red and black painted pottery is found. Beads were manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones.

Ø Internal trade was extensive with other parts of India. Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran , Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were imported.

Ø Main exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory products. There is much evidence to prove the trade links between the Indus and Sumerian people.

Ø Many seals of Indus valley have been found in Mesopotamia.

 Trade was of the barter type.

Ø The seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river and sea transport.

Social Life

Ø Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the Harappans.

Ø The dress of both men and women consisted of two pieces of cloth, one upper garment and the other lower garment. Beads were worn by men and women. Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and fingerings were worn by women.

Ø  These ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi precious stones. The use of cosmetics was common.

Ø Various household articles made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have been found at Mohenjodaro.

Ø Fishing was a regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes. There were numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.

Ø A bronze statue of Dancing girl is found at Mohenjodaro .Its right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.

Ø The language of harappans are still unknown. Parpola and his Scandinavian colleagues came to the conclusion that the language of the Harappans was Dravidian.

Religion

Ø From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans.

Ø The chief male deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns.

Ø He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different

direction). Two deer appear on his feet.

Ø The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter

times, Linga worship was prevalent.

Ø Trees and animals were also worshipped by the Harappans.

Ø They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.

Burial Methods

Ø The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial practices of the Harappans. Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro.

Ø At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins.

Note - there is no clear evidence for the practice of Sati.

Decline of the Harappan Culture