Friday 15 July 2016

Botany Questions and answers for Higher Studies

Q – Describe Mendel’s law of independent assortment with the help of a suitable example?

Ans – Whenever two or more pairs of contrasting character are brought to gather in a hybrid the alleles of the different pairs segregate independently of one another during gamete formation.

Ex – Dihybrid cross – 9:3:3:1 ratio obtain

Q – Clarify the difference between transcription and reverse transcription of DNA?

Ans – Transcription is the process in which RNA is synthesized from DNA it takes place in nucleus;
There are following steps –

1.       First unbinding of particular genomic sequence takes place by the action of RNA-polymerase enzyme.
2.       Now one strand of DNA acts as Template for RNA synthesis, that’s way known as sense strand and other known as nonsense strand.
3.       In this process RNA polymerase enzyme takes place named as RNA polymerase I, II, IIIrd
4.       Later on RNA molecule separates from sense strand to form RNA strand always synthesized in 5 to 3 direction.
Reverse Transcription –

In this process we can synthesis cDNA from mRNA. This phenomenon occurs in the presence of reverse transcriptase enzyme on RNA directed DNA polymer race. The enzyme was discovered by H.Temin & Dr. Baltimore in 1970. The cDNA molecule become double stranded and are used for cloning and preparation multiple copies in this way  -
                                                                




Reverse trans. enz                                  mRNA

                                                                                       

Alkali treatm
                                                             cDNA formed

                                                          mRNA removed

DNA polymer


                                                   Single stranded cDNA

                                                  Double stranded DNA

Q  - Describe the role of vectors in the process of gene transfer?

In genetic engineering process the role of vector in process of gene transfer is very important it carry plasmid and introduced into DNA for getting desired sequence of DNA for getting desired sequence of DNA and multiple copies of DNA also because able to replicate autonomously.

Q – Does the law of Segregation hold same in both homozygous and heterozygous?

Ans – Monohybrid cross (homozygous) are those in which inheritance of one pair of characters is occurred.

For Ex – When tall plants (TT) are crosses with dwarf(tt) plants, in F1 generation only hybrid tall plants (Tt) are formed in in F2 generation these hybrid tall plant are self crossed to form 3 tall and one dwarf plants.




In dihybrid cross, inheritance of two pairs of characters is occurred.
The law of independent assortment is applicable to the inheritance of two more pairs of characters. It states that contrasting pairs assort independently i.e. the segregation of alleles of a pair is not influenced by the presence of other gene pair.
It shows that segregation of alleles of a pair is not influences by presence of other gene pairs.

Q – Explain briefly the structure, function and origin of chromoplasts?

Ans – Chromoplasts are plastids responsible for pigment synthesis and storage. 
They like all other plastids (including chloroplasts and leucoplasts), are organelles found in specific photosynthetic eukaryotic species, some times these coloured pigments are present in vascular sap as in petals. They provide resistance to plant against thermal fluctuations.
The photosynthetically active chromoplast include chloroplasts, pheoplasts, rhodoplasts, blue green chloroplasts and chromatophores of photosynthetic bacteria.

Chloroplast – it is in green colour. It contains chlorophyll pigments, It is found in higher plants and green algae.

Phaeoplast – It is dark brown in colour. It contains Fucoxam thin pigments. It is found in brown algae, diatoms and dino flagelates.

Rhodoplasts – it is red in colour. It contains phycoerythrin. It is found in red algae.
The idea for recombinant DNA was first proposed by Peter Lobban, a graduate student of prof. Dale Kaiser in the biochemistry Department of Stanford University Medical School.

Q – Explain the structure and functions of start codons and stop codons in protein synthesis?

Start Codons: Start codons are also known as initiating codon, which initiates the synthesis of polypeptides chains in cytoplasmic region. These are AUG, GUG, AUG codons Methionine amino acid while GUG codes valine. In prokaryotes AUG specify the N-formyl Mehionine while in eukaryotes AUG specify the methionine amino acid which is starting amino acid in polypeptides chain synthesis.
Stop Codons: Stop Codons are also called terminating codons or stop signal. They break the polypeptide chain synthesis. These are UAA, UAG, UGA. These codons are also termed as ochre, amber and opal respectively as these codons don’t specify any amino acids.

Q – Write the names and places of any four prominent research centres of biotechnology?
Ans
1.       Indian Agriculture Research Institute (I.A.R.I), New Delhi.
2.       National Bureau of plant Genetics Resources (N.B.P.G.R) New Delhi.
3.       Central Drug Research Institute (C.D.R.I)
4.       Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology (R.G.C.B.) Kerala.
5.       National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology (N.R.C.P.B)  New Delhi.

Q – Explain the role of biotechnology in the production of vaccines?

Ans – Biotechnology serves the easy way for production of various vaccines, vaccines are those chemical substances prepared from proteins (antigen) of other animals which provide immunity to a particular virus. Some of the vaccines are synthesized biologically through genetic engineering process.
Vaccines of Hepatitis B
Vaccines for Rabies Virus
Vaccines for Foot and Mouth Disease
Vaccines for Small Pox Virus
Malaria Vaccines

Q – Write a note on micropropagation?

Ans – Micropropagation is a art and science of the plant multiplication in vitro. 
This process includes many steps stock plant care, explants selection and sterilization, media manipulation to obtain proliferation, rooting, acclimation and growing on of liners.
 Micropropagation is broadly used in many countries for obtaining germ free plants, but this technique is more costly.

Merits of Micropropagation

1.       Tissue culture helps in rapid multiplication of true plants, through out year.
2.       Plant raised by tissue culture are free from disease.
3.       Tissue culture methods are not viable or not available easily (eg. banana) and in plant where propagating by conventional methods are expensive eg. Orchid
Micropropagation techniques require skills and Manpower –
A.      The seedling grown under artificial condition may not survive when place environment condition directly if this is not given.

Q – Write the names of three types of polyploid and cite one example with each other?

·         Autopolyploidy – The example of autopolyploidy is ‘doob’ grass (cynodon dactylon)
·         Allopolyploidy – Example of allopolyploidy is Raphanobrassica
·         Segmental Allopolyploids – The example of this polyploidy is hexaploid bread wheat.

Q – Giving suitable sketches describes the morphology and ultrastructure of chromosomes?

Ans – A chromosomes is an organised structure of DNA & protein that is found in nucleus of the cell. It is a single piece of coiled DNA containing many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotides sequences chromosomes also contain DNA bound proteins, which serve to package the DNA and control its function.
Morphology
They are straight, rod like coiled or thread like chromosome has uniform thickness through out its length, some chromosomes have like additional structure known as satellites, chromosomes are approximately to 30µ long and 0.2µ - 0.3µ thick, long chromosomes are found Trillium.
They consists of following parts –
        I.            pellicle
      II.           Matrix
    III.          Chromonema
    IV.           chromomere
      V.            centromere
    VI.           secondary constriction
  VII.           satellite
VIII.           telomere

Matrix – Base liquid of chromosomes which is inclosed by pellicle, is called matrix. It is made up of homogenous chromatic matter.

Chromatid – Each Metaphase chromosome consist of two symmetrical strands called chromatid, each chromatid is half of chromosomes, chromatids are attached other by centromere.

Chromonema – Chromosomes appear as very thin filaments during mitotic prophase. these are called as chromonema or chromonemata. These are present in coiled and twisted form in a chromatid during all stages of Mitosis genes are located on this structure. Chromatids may contain one or more chromonema.
Chromomers – In prophase stage, each chromonema contains some raised granular structures through out its length at particular distance, which are term as chromomere.
Centromere – Specific regions in chromosomes where chromatids are link each other are called centromere. The position of centromere is constant for a particular chromosomes. Centromere has an important role in nuclear division as it holds up both the chromatids and keeps the spindle bounds. Four categories of chromosomes are recognise depending on the position of the centromere. These are called acentric, metacentric, submetacentric, acrocentric, telocentric chromosomes.

1.       Acentric -  Centromere is absent in acentric chromosomes.
2.       Metacentric – Centromere is situated in the centre of middle part of chromosome and has two equal arms. At the time of division it appears V structure.
3.       Sub Metacentric – The Centromere is situated in the centre of middle part of chromosome and has two unequal arms resembling L-shape at the time of division.
4.       Acrocentric – The centromere is sub terminal and chromosomes appear rod, like having and small arm and the very long.
5.       Telocentric – the centromere is at the tip of the chromosomes and the chromosomes appear rod-shaped.

Secondary Constriction – In addition to the primary constriction or centromere the arms of the chromosomes mayy show one or more secondary constriction. These constrictions are different from nuclear organizer although some cytologists also refer to the nuclear organizer as the secondary constriction.
Satellite – Terminal part of secondary constriction in a chromosome is called satellite. It is spherical, long or knob-like. The chromosomes with the satellite are designate/called SAT chromosomes.
Telomere – The tips or end of the chromosome are called telomere. The telomere differ in structure and composition from the rest of the chromosome.

Q – Difference between spontaneous and induced mutations. Describe the methods of detecting the presence of mutation?
Ans – Spontaneous Mutation –
Some Mutations arise as natural errors in DNA replication (or as a result of cm known Chemical reactions) these are known as spontaneous mutations, The rates of such mutations have been determine for many species E.coli has a spontaneous mutation rate of 1/108  (one error in every 108 nucleotides replicated).
Humans have higher mutation rate between 1/10and 1/105 (probably as a result of the higher complexity of human replication).
Induced Mutation – Mutations which artificially induced are called Induced Mutation, it can be influenced by Radiation, α,β particles ν rays, UV rays and chemical mutagens, like Ethyl ethane sulphonate, Ethyl Methy sulphonate, Nitro methyl urea, dimethyl sulphate, nitrous acid, hydroxil amine. Induced mutations have played important role in Agriculture.

Q – Describe the structure, biogenesis and functions of the Ribosomes?
Ans – Introduction
Ribosomes are the protein builders or the protein synthesizers of the cell Ribosomes are found in many places around the cell. Ribosomes are also keeps attach to endoplasmic reticulum that make rough appears under microscope. With the help of microscope it has been found that ribosomes are two types. e.g. 70s ribosomes and 80s ribosomes are found in prokaryotes and 80s ribosomes found in eukaryotes.
Prokaryotic ribosomes (Bacterial ribosomes) are 70s ribosomes that have 50s large subunit of and 30s small subunits, the small subunit is composed of a 16s ribosomal RNA and 21 ribosomal proteins, while the large unit is composed of 23s ribosomal RNA and 33 ribosomal proteins the small subunit mainly takes cares of the association with messenger RNA during the start of translation and decoding which resolves 3-nt codon that decides which amino acids to insert to the polypeptide chain.
Structure of Ribosomes –

With the help of microscope it has been found that ribosomes are prokaryotic ribosomes and eukaryotic ribosomes, prokaryotic ribosomes and eukaryotic ribosomes, prokaryotic ribosomes composed 70S, subunits which have 30 small and 50 large sub units and eukaryotic ribosomes composed 80S subunits which have 60S large subunits and 40S small subunits.
Prokaryotic Ribosomes partially divided by prokaryotic Ribosomes partially divided by two lobes by a deep cleft, the two sub units are fitted to each other as a way a tunnel is formed between them, The small sub units is composed of a 16S ribosomal-RNA and 21-ribosomal proteins, while the large sub units is composed by 23S ribosomes and 33 ribosomal proteins.
Biogenesis of ribosomes –
In bacterial cells, ribosomes are synthesized in cytoplasm through the transcription of multiple ribosomes gene operons. In eukaryotes the process takes place both cell cytoplasm and nucleolus, which is the, a region with in the cell nucleus. The assemble process involves the coordinated function of over 200 proteins in the synthesis and processing of the four  rRNA with the Ribosomal proteins.
Function of Ribosomes –

The primary function of Ribosomes is protein synthesis according to the sequence of amino acids as specified in the m-RNA. “The main functions of ribosomes, they play the role of assembling amino acids to form specific proteins, which in turn are essential for carrying out the cell’s activities (as well as all have fair idea regarding productions of proteins, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) first produces RNA (messenger RNA or m-RNA by the process of DNA transcription after which genetic message from the m-RNA in translated into proteins during DNA translation.
RNA – During protein synthesis, the genetic code is used to translate the sequence of nucleotide in mRNA into the sequences as protein.

Q – What are the Transgenic plants? Describe their achievements and significance?

Ans – Through the genetic engineering process the entering of a particular foreign gene and introduced into other is known as Genetically modified organism or plant OR
A biotechnological process in which transfer of foreign gene into a plant cell with the help of genetic engineering is known as Genetically modified organism or plant. transgenciplant are unique in that they develop only one plant cell in normal sexual reproduction. Plant offspring is produce whenn a pollen cell and ovule fuse .
                                                                OR

A Genetic engineering process in which a functional foreign gene has incorporated that genetically not present in plat ae called transgenic plat, scientists are trying to develop new varieties as plant for commercial purpose and high crop yield advantage for economic purpose.
Achievement – There are many achievement in the field of agriculture as well as animal.
1.       Improved Nutritional Quality : Milled rice is the staple food for a large fraction of the world’s human population.
2.       Insect Resistance : Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacterium that is pathogenic for a number of insect pets.
3.       Disease Resistance : Genes that provide resistance against plant viruses have been successfully introduced into such crop plant as tobacco, tomatoes, and potatoes.
4.       Herbicide Resistance : Genes for resistance to some of the newer herbicides have been introduced into the some crops plants and enable them to thrive even when exposed to the weed killer.
5.       Terminator genes : this term is used (by opponents of the practice) for transgenes introduce into crop plant to make them produce sterile seeds (and thus force the former to by fresh seeds for the following season rather than saving seeds from the current crop).
The significance of transgenic plant is much in thhe field of agriculture, any many developing country are
discovering new traits of the particular plant for human warfare.

Q – Describe peroxisomes (microbodies) –
Ans-
Peroxisomes are membrane bounded organelle that appears in the most eukaryotic organelle that appears in most eukaryotic cells, They have often a crystalline structure with in the amorphous gray matrix. There are animals in which other kind of inclusions may exist or even in which there are no inclusions at all.
Peroxisomes are self replicating in mammals and other vertebrates they are particularly large and abundant in hepatocytes and cells of the tubular portions of Nephrons (namily in epithelial cells of the proximal tubules) peroxisomes were discovered in 1954 and there function was virtually unknown for over a decade, today they are known to be essential in many vital pathways such as –

·         Metabolism of free oxygen radicals.
·         Synthesis of cholesterol and ether lipids.
·         Catabolism of long chain fatty acids.
·         Catabolisms of proteins, prostaglandins.
·         Alcohol  detoxification in liver.
·         Metabolism of estradiol (more recently provides and our currently reach topic)
Some Interesting facts about peroxisomes are :-
·         Human congenital disease are associated with the absence of peroxisomes and/or with the disfunction of their enzyme.
·         Many chemicals (drugs industrial pollutants) induce a marked proliferation of peroxisomes.
·         Prolonged treatment with most proliferator induce malignant hepatic tumor.
·         Estradiol seems to have depressive effect on peroxisomes (at least in fresh hepatocytes).

Q – Thylakoid?

Ans – A Thylakoid is a membrane bound compartment inside chloroplast and cyanobacteria. They are the site of the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis. The word “Thylakoid” is drive from the Greek thylakoids means “Sac” thylakoids consist of a Thylakoid membrane surrounding a thylakoid lumen. Chloroplast thylakoid frequently forms stacks of disks referred to as “grana” (singular granum) “Grana is latin word for “Stocks of coins” grana are connected by intergrana or stroma thylakoids, which join granum stacks together as a single functional compartment.

Q – Cell Chromatic?

Chromatin is a complex combination of DNA and protein that makes chromosomes it is found inside the nuclei of eukaryotic cell. The major component of chromatin are DNA and histones protein.
Cell chromatin are also found in cytoplasm called mitochondrial genome or chloroplasts called mitochondrial genome or chloroplastial genome. these are known as extra chromosomal DNA. Chromatin contains genetic material instructions to direct cell function.

Q – Colchicine.

A drug obtained from the meadow saffro (calchium autumnnale), used to treatment to relieve pain in attacks of gout and in the prevention of attacks of polyserositis.

Q – G.J. Mendel ?

Ans – Gregor John Mendel is known as “Father of genetics” because of that he did research on pisum sativum to know about herediatery, Mendel was born in 1822 at Sicilian village of Heinzendorf. His father was a farmer and belond ordinary family. After completing his early education mendal received graduate degree from university and some days he taught physics in school inspire that mendal had keen interest on plant & environment, mendal join a church as a position of father and starting research on Pea plant for many years he collected the traits of plants and after this phenomenon finish his work on Pea, Mendal’s work on pea were published in Natural History Society of Brann inn 1865 but no body pay attention towards mendals notes, In 19th century Three scientists rediscovered his rules on Genetics on different-2 places, After that Hugo-de-vries of Holland & Tschesmark of Austria and correns of Germany recognise, and called his father of Genetics with respect him. Mendal proposed following laws –
1.       Law of Independent Assortment
2.       Law of Segregation
3.       Law of dominance

Q – M.S. Swaminathan

M.S. Swaminathan was born on August 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu. His father passed away when he was 11 years old. After his father death, he came close to his uncle, a renowned scholar of Madra university. He earn Bachelor’s degree in Zoology as a teenager, He was strongly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi’s ideals of non-violence and belief in swadeshi (self-reliance). He enrolled in the Coimbatore agriculture college in Tamil Nadu therefore he moved on to the Indian Agriculture Research Institute (IARI) in New Delhi where he earn a post graduate degree in Cytogenetics. He continued his studies at the Wageninger Agricultuure University Institute of genetics in the Netherlands, before earning his Phd degree from university of Cambridge. After his post doctoral study at the university of Wisconsin, he declined the offer of full time faculty position there and return to India in early 1954.
His professional career began in 1949-1955, he under took research at potato, wheat, rice and jute genetics after which he worked Mexican dwarf varieties. He establish the national bureau of plants, Animal and Fish genetic resources of India and the international plant genetic resources Institute besides serving as the principle secretary in the ministry of Agriculture government of India.
He was awarded the first world food prize in october 1987 and has been described by the United Nations Environment programme as “the father of Economic Ecology” besides being three Indians to be included in time magazine’s 1999 list of 20th most influential asian people of the 20th century”. Along with Mahatma gandhi and Rabindra nath tagore. He has many books to his credit. An Evergreen Revolution, I predict a century of hope Towards an era of harmony with Nature and Freedom from Hunger, gender Dimensions in biodiversity. Management, Agrobiodiversity and farmers right, sustainable Agriculture towards Food Security are some of his notable books.

Q – Z-DNA :-

Z-DNA is one of the many possible double helical structure of DNA it is a left-handed double helical structure in which the double helix winds to the left in a zig-zag pattern (instead as to the right like the more common B-DNA form) Z-DNA is thought to be one of three biologically active double helical structure along with B-DNA & A-DNA.

Q – Transposons – 

Transposons are segment of DNA that can move around to different positions in the genome of a single cell. In the process they may cause mutations, increase (or decrease) the amount of DNA in the genome of the cell, and if the cell is the precursor of a gamete, in the genomes of any descendant.
These mobile segments of DNA are sometimes called “Jumping Genes”.
There are two distinct types :-
Class II transposons – These consist of DNA that moves directly from place to place.
Class I – These are retrotransposons that, Ist transcribe the DNA into RNA and then use reverse transcriptase to make a DNA copy of the RNA to insert in a new location.

Q – Watson and Crick

Francis crick was a british molecular biologist, James D.Watson and Francis Crick, using X-ray diffraction data collected by rosalind franklin and mauiric wilkins, proposed double helix structure of DNA and confirmed the heredity nature of DNA, following these discoveries, a lot of work done to understand the nature of genetic code and particularly the types, structure and function of another molecules that seems similar to DNA, which was called RNA or the ribonucleic acid, until 1968. Francis crick and Lesile orgel proposed that the first information molecules was RNA since then numerous studies have been gone in this field exploring its function, nature.

Q – What is totipotency?

Morgon coined totipotency, it is the capacity of cell to develop into an organism by regeneration. Each living cell of a multicellular organism, is capable of independent development, when provide a suitable condition this concept is important in Tissue culture because use of multicellular organism in research, as biological unit is rather difficult.

Q – DNA Fingerprinting ?

DNA finger printing is a way of identifying a specific individual rather than simply identify a species or some particular trait. It is also known as genetic finger printing or DNA profiling. It was discovered by Sir, Alec Jeffry. DNA fingerprinting it currently used both for identifying partenity or maternity and for identifying criminals or victims.

Q - Write short note on Caulimo Virus?

Caulimo Virus is also called Cauliflower Mosaic Virus (CaMV) and responsible for the mosaic disease in cauliflower, it is mechanically transmitted by simply rubbing on the host leaf surface. Hence it is play an role in genetic engineering. It’s genetic material is DNA so it is a ideal vehicle in genetic engineering. It possess following properties –
1.       It is infective but not deadly pathogenic.
2.       CaMV may be incorporated into any structure possessing DNA.
3.       It’s DNA is very small.

Q – Write an eassay on “Genetic Engineering” and its role in human welfare?

Ans –  The Hershey-Chase experiment –
For providing that genetic material is not protein, Alfred Hershey and Martha chase (1952) performed an experiment to prove genetic material is DNA or protein is known blender experiment. They worked with virus tat infect bacteria that virus is called bacteriophase, bacteriophage attach to the bacteria and  enters his genetic material into the bacterial cell. The bacterial cell treats the viral genetic material as if it was its its own, and subsequently manufacture move virus particles. Hershy and chase worked to discover whether it was protein or DNA from the virus that entered into the bacteria, they grew some viruses on a medium that contained Radio active sulphur and some other that contained radioactive phosphorous.
Virus grow in the presence of radioactive phosphorous contained radioactive DNA but not radio active protein because protein does not contain phosphorous. Similarly, virus grown on radioactive protein, but not radio active DNA because DNA does not contain sulphur, Radio active phages were allowed to attach to E.Coli bacteria, Then as the infective proceeded, the viral coats were removed from the bacteria by agitating them in a blender. The virus particle were separated from the bacteria by Spinning them in a centrifuge.
Bacteria which was infected by virus that had radioactive DNA were radio active, that indicating DNA is  a genetic material that possess or transfer into bacteria from virus that had radioactive protein were not radio active. This indicate that protein did not enter bacteria from viruses, DNA is therefore genetic material that passed from virus to bacteria.

Q – Describe concept of Gene?

W. Johanson introduced the term ‘gene’ that acts as hereditary units. Gene has some specific character e.g.
1.       it shows physiological function.
2.       Transmission of Segregation of character.
3.       Mutation
A Gene can be defined as “a polynucleotide chain that consist of segments each are responsible to control a particular trait, Now genes are considered as a unit as function (cistron), a unit of mutation (mutan) and a unit of recombination (recon).
Cistron is defined by S. Benzer as a functional gene, one gene-one enzyme hypothesis of Beadle and tatum was redefined by several workers in coming years. A single mRNA is transcribed by a single gene. A single mRNA is also transcribed by more than one gene & said to be polycistronic.
Recon – The crossing over or recombination occurs with in a functional gene or cistron. In a cistron recombinational unit is more than one thus the smallest unit capable of undergoing recombination is known as recon.
Muton – Muton may be defined as the smallest unit of DNA which may be changed in nucleotide. Therefore cistron is largest unit is size followed by recon and muton, this can be explained that a gene consist of several distron a cistron contains many recon  and recon number of muton.

Q – Autonomy of chloroplast –

The existence of DNA in chloroplast has been established by both cytological and biochemical criteria. Ris and Dlauut (1962) provided the first convincing evidence chloroplast contains DNA & RNA. The DNA is double stranded and circular while ribosome are 70s types, presence of DNA, and RNA and ribosome in chloroplast indicate that this is a semi autonomous cell organelle, because there auto reproduction capacity is just like to living cell, but they reproduce with in cell. due to presence of DNA & RNA and ribosome, chloroplast itself synthesis its own protein and other material.

Q – Plasmid – 

Plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA elements found mostly in bacteria plasmid contain DNA sequences coding for drug resistance, sex factor (F factor) etc and probably has arisen from chromosomal DNA. When bacterium multiply, the plasmid DNA will also multiply along with chromosomal DNA, plasmids are relicons which are stably inherited in an extrachromosomal state.
Properties of plasmid cloning vehicles –
·         Plasmid are low molecular weight.
·         Ability to confer readily selectable phenotype traits on host cell.
·         Plasmid can reproduce itself inside the bacterium independently of the main bacterial DNA.

Q – Transformation

Transformation is a process by which transfer DNA from one cell to another cell takepart without contact of any cell, to understand briefly the process of transformation some scientist performed experiments. First time Griffith performed series of experiment with streptococcus pneumonia. He grew some bacteria on culture plate, he found some bacteria produced smooth shiny colonies, this is because the S strain bacteria have a mucous (polysaccharide) coat while R strain bacteria does not, he injected S strain bacterium in to mice mice died, then he injected R-strain bacterium into mice mice alive. The He heated S strain Bacterium and injected into mice along with R-strain bacterium mice died, The he observed that anything is that which transfor later Oswal Avery, a colin macleod and maclyn mccary (1933-44) showed that the substance of responsible for transformation was DNA.

Q – Hargovind Khurana –

Dr. Hargobind Khorana was born in Raipur, in Punjab, India in 1922, he received Bsc degree and Msc degree from the punjab university in Lahore (now in pakistan) and his Phd from the university of Liverpool, where he went in 1945 on government of India fellowship. Dr. Khorant awarded by Nobel Prize for Medicine and physiology along with Marshal Nirenberg and Robert Holley for cracking the genetic code.  Dr. Khorana and his team had established the mother of all codes, the biological language common to all living organism, is spelled out in three letters words, each set of three nucleotides codes for a specific amino acid Dr. Khorana, was also the first to synthesized oligonucleotides, that is string of nucleotides, These custom desired pieces of artificial genes are widely used in Biology labs for sequencing cloning and engineering new plants and animals.

Q – Split Genes –

Split genes are non coding genes, it is defined as a eukaryotic genes in which the coding sequence is divided into two or more exons that are interrupt by a number of no coding intervening sequence (introns) called split genes. Most higher level eukaryotes have interrupted genes have longer introns than axons, creating a gene that is longer than its coding regions. Exons, are the coding portion of gene. The code for various parts of the protein that will be produced introns are non doing, sequences. They do not code for any portions of the protein.

Q – Explants – 

Explant is a piece of any plant tissue cells this piece or tissue are isolated by the technique of Ex-plant culture or tissue culture to produce a new plant for identify its properties, so it can be portion of shoot, leaves, or some cells from a plant or can be any part of the tissue of animal because this portion (Isolated tissue) has a capacity to develop whole organism.

Q – Somatic hybrids –

 A somatic hybrid is an animal or plant developed from a cell that is fusion of the protoplasm of two somatic ells with desired characters. The formation of somatic hybrids by protoplasmic fusion was first described by Kulter (1909). He observed that when the protoplasts of two genetically distinct plants grown together in a culture a somatic hybrid was formed by the fusion between the plasma membranes and two cytoplasms.

1.       Heterokaryotype – It refers to those somatic hybrid in which the cytoplasm of the two parent fuse but their nuclei remain separate.
2.       Sin Karyotype – it refers to those somatic hybrid in which the two parental nuclei fused to each other produced a single nuclei with in the fused cytoplasm.
3.       cybrid – In this condition out of two parental nuclei, when one nucleus completely disappears and only one nucleus remains in the cytoplasm, the somatic hybrid is called cybrid.
Single Cell protein – single cell protein refers to mixed protein. Microbes are being grown on an industrial scale as source of good protein. Microbes like spirulina can be grown easily on materials like waste water from potato processing plants (containing starch), straw and molasses, animal manure and even sewage to produce large quantities and can serve as food rich in protein, mineral, fats, carbohydrates and vitamins. Incidentally such utilisation on also reduces environmental pollution on also reduces environmental pollution.
Advantages
1.       SCP are low fat containing proteins, and proteins are of good quality.
2.       SCP can be produced whole year and their production does not depend on climate.
3.       Due to high growth rate of microbes SCP is obtained in huge quantity from less area.

Biofertilization
Biofertilizer play an important role in Agricultural area because Now a days a different different types of chemical’s are using for maintain soil fertility to yield high crop, but these chemical’s make a negative affect on soil and of course They are high in cost. for the solution of this problem scientists suggested an idea of use biofertilizers, biofertilizers means use of those organisms which have ability to increase the fertility of soil. In the biofertilization process, some active, bacteria fungi, blue green algae are used either or mixed form, some nitrogen fixing bacteria can be used to maintain nitrogen demand of agriculture they contain symbiotics non symbiotic bacteria.

Biofertilizers for phosphate solubility – The main function of this group is to  availabilities of soil. Phosphorus to plant, eg Pseudomonas Aspergillus and fusarium etc and mycorrhizae is the chief biofertilizers of this class and other hand several organic man was lie animal dung manures, green manures concentrated manures like, Neem, cake, blood powder, fish manures, Poultry manures and manures of its own unuseful crops parts and sugar factories sugar can waste manure are also used as a biofertilizers. These fertilizers are also contribute to increase the crop production on capacity of soil.

Q – Microbial Fermentation –

Microbial fermentation is a enzymatic decomposition and utilization of food stuffs, particularly carbohydrates by microbes, In this process some microbes In this process some microbes are used for production of foods and beverages such as bear, butter, milk, cheese, vinegar, yogurt, liqour, and wine. Fermentation involves the action of desirable microorganisms or their enzymes on food  ingredients to make biochemical changes, which cause significance modification to the food especially yeast have been used from time immemorial for the production of beverages like wine, beer, whisky, brandy or rum. Saccharomyces are visiae used for bread-making and commonly called brewer’s yeast. Saccharomyces species may also used for the fermenting malted cereals and fruit juices to produced ethanol molds also can be active in certain fermentations, such as stillion cheese and soya sauce.

Q – Describe the merits and demerits of the biochemical production of plant tissue culture?

Merits of Biochemical production –
1.       One of the most important merit of biochemical production of plant tissue culture to save the atural plant populations from the danger of extinction.
2.       Continue supply of sufficient amount of biochemicals produced from limited number of plants.
3.       High rate of production of biochemical for example – cell culture of L.erythrorhizon produces upto 20% shikonin,while its roots contain at 300 C and can obtain biochemicals on the bases of facilities.
Demerits of Biochemical production –
1.       High cost of production is the most important drawback of this technique.
2.       Path of synthesis of some biochemical are unknown. Thus the improvement in their production is so much typical by cell culture method.
3.       Generally cell cultures do not produced valuable compounds.


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