LESSON 2
PRE-HISTORIC
INDIA AND THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
The history of
India dated back to Pre Historic
times. There are no written evidence available to describe the Pre-Historic
Period of India. However there are much Archaeological Remains have found in
different parts of India.
They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal
implements used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps much
to understand the life and culture of the people
who lived in this period.
In India, the prehistoric period
is divided into the –
1.
Paleolithic(Old
Stone Age) Before 10000 B.C.
2.Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age),
3.Neolithic (NewStone
Age) and the Metal Age
Ø The technique of
radio-carbon dating is commonly used
for this purpose. It is based on measuring the loss of carbon in organic
materials over a period of time. Another dating method is known as dendro-chronology.
Paleolithic
or Old Stone Age
Ø The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of the Indian
subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water sources. Several
rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic
people are scattered across the subcontinent.
Ø They also lived
rarely in huts made of leaves. Some
of the famous
sites of Old Stone Age in India are:
a. The Soan valley and Potwar
Plateau on the northwest India.
b. The Siwalik hills on the north
India.
c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh. (few Old Stone Age paintings have also
been found on rocks)
d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh
f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.
Ø In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals and
gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are called
as hunter-gatherers.
They used stone tools, hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals.
Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite.
Ø Large pebbles
are often found in river terraces.
Ø The hunting of
large animals would have required the combined effort of a group of people with
large stone axes.
Ø We have little
knowledge about their language and communication. Their way of life became
modified with the passage of time since they made attempts to domesticate
animals, make crude pots and grow some plants.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age –( from
10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C.)
Ø
After
the Palaeolithic age the next stage of human was Mesolithic age .
Ø It was the
transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age. Mesolithic remains
are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Ø The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people.
Ø In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of stone tools is found. These are tiny stone
artifacts, often not more than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths.
Ø The hunting-gathering pattern of life continued
during this period.
Ø However, there
seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing.
Ø The use of bow
and arrow also began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle
for longer periods in an area.
Ø Therefore, domestication of animals, horticulture
and primitive cultivation started.
Ø Animal bones are
found in these sites and these include dog,
deer, boar and ostrich.
Ø Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been
practiced.
Neolithic
Age (6000 B.C to 4000 B.C.)
Ø A remarkable
progress is noticed in human civilization in the Neolithic Age.
Ø Neolithic
remains are found in various parts of India. These include the Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar,
Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan.
Ø The important Neolithic
sites excavated in south India are Maski,
Brahmagiri, Hallur and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu
and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.
Ø The chief
characteristic features practice of agriculture, domestication of animals,
polishing of stone tools and the manufacture of pottery.
Ø In fact, the
cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of
village communities based on sedentary life.
Ø There was a great
improvement in technology of making tools and other equipments used by man.
Stone tools were now polished.
Ø The polished axes were found to be more
effective tools for hunting and cutting trees. Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.
Ø Wheels were used
to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking as well as storage of food
grains.
Ø Large urns were
used as coffins for the burial of the dead. There was also improvement in
agriculture.
Ø Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated
in different areas at different points of time.
Ø Rice cultivation
was extensive in eastern India.
Ø Domestication of
sheep, goats and cattle was
widely prevalent.
Ø Cattle were used
for cultivation and for transport. The people of Neolithic Age used clothes
made of cotton and wool.
Metal
Age
Ø The Neolithic
period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone) period when copper and bronze
came to be used.
Ø The new technology of smelting metal ore and
crafting metal artifacts is an important
development in human civilization.
Ø But the use of
stone tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to be
essential items.
Ø People began to
travel for a long distance to obtain metal ores. This led to a network of
Chalcolithic cultures and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of
India.
Ø Generally,
Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. Most importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of
Chalcolithic culture.
Ø The Chalcolithic
age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas. The Iron
Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith
means Large Stone.
Ø The burial pits
were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found in South
India.
Ø Some of the
important megalithic sites are Hallur
and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda
in Andhra Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu.
Origin
and Evolution
Ø The
archaeological findings excavated for the last eight decades reveal the gradual
development of the Harappan culture.
Ø There are four
important stages or phases of evolution and they are named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan
and late Harappan.
Ø The pre-Harappan
stage is located in eastern Baluchistan.
Ø The excavations
at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the
northwest of Mohenjodaro reveal the
existence of pre-Harappan culture.
Ø In this stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life.
Ø In the
early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains. There
was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus valley. Also, the transition from
rural to urban life took place during this period. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for early-Harappan stage.
Ø In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities
emerged.
Ø The excavations
at Kalibangan with its elaborate
town planning and urban features prove this phase of evolution.
Ø In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the
Indus culture started.
Ø The excavations
at Lothal reveal this stage of
evolution.
Ø Lothal with its port was founded much later.
It was surrounded by a massive brick wall as flood protection.
Ø Lothal remained
an emporium of trade between the Harappan
civilization and the remaining part
of India as well as Mesopotamia.
Ø In 1931, Sir
John Marshall estimated the duration of the occupation of Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C.
Ø Town
Planning-
Ø The Harappan
culture was distinguished by its system of town planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes
cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the city into
several rectangular blocks.
Ø Harappa, Mohenjodaro
and Kalibangan each had its own citadel
built on a high podium of mud brick. Below the citadel in each city lay a lower
town containing brick houses, which were inhabited by the common people.
Ø The large-scale
use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone
buildings are the important characteristics of the Harappan culture.
Ø Another
remarkable feature was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to
the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
Economic
life
Ø There was a
great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture, industry and crafts
and trade. Wheat and barley were
the main crops grown besides sesame,
mustard and cotton.
Ø Surplus grain is
stored in granaries. Animals like sheep,
goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established. A number of other animals were
hunted for food including deer.
Ø Specialized
groups of artisans include goldsmiths,
brick makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta manufacturers.
Ø Bronze and
copper vessels are the outstanding examples
of the Harappan metal craft.
Ø Gold and silver
ornaments are found in many places. Pottery remains plain and in some places
red and black painted pottery is found. Beads were manufactured from a wide
variety of semi-precious stones.
Ø Internal trade
was extensive with other parts of India. Foreign trade was mainly conducted
with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran , Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones
were imported.
Ø
Main
exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products including
cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta
figures and ivory products. There is much evidence to prove the trade links
between the Indus and Sumerian people.
Ø Many seals of Indus valley have been
found in Mesopotamia.
Trade
was of the barter type.
Ø
The
seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts
and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river
and sea transport.
Social
Life
Ø Much evidence is
available to understand the social life of the Harappans.
Ø
The
dress of both men and women consisted of two
pieces of cloth, one upper garment and the other lower garment. Beads were worn by men and women. Jewelleries such as bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings and fingerings
were worn by women.
Ø
These ornaments were made of gold, silver, copper, bronze and semi
precious stones. The use of cosmetics was common.
Ø Various
household articles made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal
have been found at Mohenjodaro.
Ø Fishing was a
regular occupation while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes. There
were numerous specimens of weapons
of war such as axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.
Ø A bronze statue
of Dancing girl is found at
Mohenjodaro .Its right hand rests on the
hip, while the left arm, covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed posture.
Ø The language of
harappans are still unknown. Parpola
and his Scandinavian colleagues came
to the conclusion that the language of the Harappans
was Dravidian.
Religion
Ø From the seals,
terracotta figurines and copper tablets we get an idea on the religious life of
the Harappans.
Ø The chief male deity
was Pasupati, (proto-Siva)
represented in seals as sitting in a yogic
posture with three faces and two horns.
Ø He is surrounded
by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino,
and buffalo each facing a different
direction). Two deer appear on his feet.
Ø The chief female
deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter
times, Linga worship was
prevalent.
Ø Trees and
animals were also worshipped by the Harappans.
Ø They believed in
ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.
Burial Methods
Ø The cemeteries
discovered around the cities like
Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the
burial practices of the Harappans.
Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular at Mohenjodaro.
Ø At Lothal the burial pit was lined with
burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins.
Note - there is no
clear evidence for the practice of Sati.
Decline of the
Harappan Culture
